Leisure and technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Leisure and technology - Essay Example In the contemporary world, things have taken a different direction especially after industrialization. The aspect of leisure time activities has been intertwined with technology. In most cases, the leisure-time mobility and activities have tended to develop through technology use (Castle, 2006). The technological aspects, which had previously been developed for military, scientific and commercial purposes, have shifted towards leisure-time use. Currently, new technologies concepts have a leisure-time use phase. Alternatively, technological devices tend to serve as prototypes for various models which are then adapted for leisure time use. New researches suggest that pervasive technological tools tend to be killing off leisure activities. The younger generation is the mostly affected by the aspect of technology and leisure. In most cases, students and the younger workers tend to work for longer hours hence taking shorter vacations. If they decide to go for the vacation, all they do is take their laptops, tabs and cell phones along. Most organizations also tend to encourage this aspect by recommending the use of internet to do organizational chores while on holiday. Examples of leisure activities, which have been affected by technology, include games, book reading among others. In the contemporary world, children and even the young adults prefer computer games during their leisure and not the real game on the ground (Castle, 2006). Football is nowadays played over the internet. Alternatively, people prefer to watch football or any other game on the television instead of going to the stadium to watch it live. Nowadays people do not spend their free time reading novels and magazines. With the introduction of the internet, most people prefer reading online articles and books. With modernization, traditional forms of leisure have been replaced

Teaching ESL through Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Teaching ESL through Culture - Essay Example The complexity was actually compounded when the aspect of culture comes into play. With the growth of technology that contributed to breaking barriers of time and distance, people from various cultures felt the most eminent need to learn ESL, considering English as the universal language. In this regard, the objective of the essay is to review six pertinent literatures that delve into the subject of teaching ESL with culture seen as playing a crucial role in learning and reinforcing literacy and proficiency. Defining Culture From evaluating the contents of the six articles, one observed that in discussing the role that culture plays in teaching ESL, several authors acknowledged that defining the term ‘culture’ proffered challenges due to its broad perspectives. Lafayette acknowledged that â€Å"because culture can be defined so broadly, it is often difficult for teachers to select those aspects that should be included in the curriculum at various levels of instructionâ €  (6). ... omprises a set of symbolic systems, including knowledge, norms, values, beliefs, language, art, customs, as well as habits and skills learned by members of a given society† (Young, Sachdev, & Seedhouse, 2009, p. 149). From among the definitions noted, Young, et al. included language as part of the definition acknowledging the important role it plays in the communication process. Problems in Incorporating Culture in Teaching ESL Aside from the dilemma in defining the term, most authors have revealed that there were apparent apprehensions for incorporating teaching culture in the ESL curriculum (Lafayette, 1978, p. 6). Sauve have enumerated seven problems with teaching culture in the Canadian ESL classroom, to wit: (1) naming â€Å"a Canadian culture† (Sauve, 1996, p. 17); (2) unprepared academic programs for teaching cultural aspects; (3) a conceptual dilemma of defining ESL; (4) perceived decline in valuing the ESL professional; (5) the role of immigrant educators as ESL staffs; (6) biased society in favor of white, Anglo-Saxon, Christian and of middle class tradition and values (Sauve, 1996, p. 22); and (7) time context and priorities. The article written by Young, et al. highlighted concerns that included ambiguity in determining â€Å"whose culture should be a focus for study on English language program† (Young, Sachdev, & Seedhouse, 2009, p. 151) and how effective an identified approach would be after taking into account the increasing predominance of nonnative speaking (NNS) teachers of a language and their acknowledged difficulty in teaching culture with the ESL realm. Finally, Byram and Kramsch (2008) disclosed the problem of cultural translation by citing Geertz’s words as: â€Å"Translation is not a simple recasting of others' ways of putting things in terms of

As a condition of voting, should people be required to demonstrate Essay

As a condition of voting, should people be required to demonstrate that they have an adequate understanding of how the American government works Why or Why not - Essay Example Voting is a high stalk game because wrong voting can lead to unjust wars, calamitous economic policies and needless wars. That is why voters should make the right decision while voting based on sound evidence that will lead to best policing and promote the common good rather than on self-interest. Voting is not a duty for everyone because some people vote based on their self-interest, while others are politically incompetent, and others are ignorant. If this kind of people votes then they owe it to the other citizens both voters and no-voters. There is nothing wrong by being ignorant in politics, misinformed or coming up with particular political belief so long as you do not impose your views on people by voting (Brennan, 2012). Research done indicate that most America voters are clueless on issues concerning political. If asked question on political, for instance, if they prefer diplomacy to military action in solving international conflict. Most lack ideas on what to say; others tend to refer to what they hard on television. If asked why they prefer one candidate to the others, they answer ignorantly and just say that they just like the way that person talks. If an individual cannot discuss rationally on foreign issues, name the staple of liberal ideology, or change their thoughts in response to information they are not able to remember. Then that people is better if he does not vote. Most voters vote based on partisan voting, which in most cases they inherit from their parents. Those who vote genuinely based on of facts are very few. Survey done in the 2000 and 2004 elections suggest that most voters behave politically just like voter of the 1950s. However, some scholars think that their colleagues have set the bar high of what is expected of the voters. Voting is an ethical issue and how we vote matters a lot. In our voting, we can create a better government or a worse one and

The Road of e-Business Transformation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6750 words

The Road of e-Business Transformation - Essay Example Both government and industry experts and leaders are anticipating the time when e-business investments will eventually create authentic and lasting change. E-business is about continuously revolutionizing market spaces and business models, innovating organizations in time to compete, reinforced by Internet technologies, manpower capital, and the search for value. The strength of the transformation is the core of e-business investment, but such has yet to be sufficiently illustrated through the current applications of e-business models (Khoong, 2001). The startup phase transpired between 1995 and 1999. During the onset of e-business, several pure-play startups surfaced, utilizing technology as a critical business driver. The value proposition of the startups was inclined towards the catchphrase 'Content is King!'. The euphoria was compounded by a gold rush - valuation of dotcoms was seen as the way to instant wealth. The reality of the startup phase was that expensive customer acquisition was of little help for weak value propositions, and the big burn rates eventually caused the failures of numerous startups. The first 100 days of business also became the last 100 days for some. The tail end of the startup phase was a B2C shakeout. It was only last year t... The first 100 days of business also became the last 100 days for some. The tail end of the startup phase was a B2C shakeout. It was only last year that e-business investors began to separate the hype from the reality. The NASDAQ crash provided a much-needed correction on the real value of e-business investments. This second phase - the partnership phase - is where we stand today. Partnerships through joint ventures and strategic alliances between old-economy and new-economy firms are seen as the attractive paths to profitability. By focusing on vertical business sectors and leveraging partnerships to provide a ready community of subscribers to e-business services, customer acquisition costs are dramatically reduced and the top-line potential becomes significantly more lucrative. The partnership phase is expected to run for another year or so, by which time the next phase will set in. In the meantime, the market will have to sort itself out, as at the moment a glut in e-marketplaces is looming. The tail end of the partnership phase will be a B2B shakeout. Within the next two years, we expect consolidation in the e-business industry. This will then bring us into the consolidation phase, in which every business is an e-business, and the 'e' qualification becomes totally redundant. Consolidation will mean e-business infrastructure becomes the backbone of huge business networks, supporting end-to-end supply chain integration. The tail end of the consolidation phase - if there is one - may be characterized by a world comprising a few gigantic global e-firms and some very small firms who remain out of the e-loop.

Buddhism Versus Greek Mythology Essay Example for Free

Buddhism Versus Greek Mythology Essay â€Å"[A human being] experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest, a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness, â€Å"said Albert Einstein. â€Å"Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty† (â€Å"Heart Quotes†). Einstein’s view on nature is similar to that of Indian Buddhists. Life-giving Indian weather inspired the Buddhist cyclic view of rebirth while the rugged terrain of Greece inspired their harsh outlook on nature. Buddhists believe man is one with nature while Greek mythology emphasizes the all-importance of man. Buddhists live in harmony with nature whereas the Greeks show violence towards it and all its creatures. However, as the Greek mindset shifted towards philosophy, so did it shift towards similar reverence towards nature. The defining distinction between these two perspectives on life is that the outlook on nature of Buddhists show values from the belief that all is in harmony with Atman, whereas the Greek outlook on nature shows that man is above nature. India is a country of lush plains, striking mountains, beautiful deserts, and dazzling bays. 2, 545 years ago, this incredible scenery served as the backdrop to Buddha’s life and eventual Enlightenment, from which Buddhist teachings would one day grow (Eckel 6). The impact of Buddha’s surroundings on Buddhist thinking is obvious, especially when one takes into consideration India’s dramatic seasonal climate changes. Every summer in India, the monsoons arrive. Every summer in India is monsoon season, a time of torrential downpours raging uninterrupted for months. Before these monsoons, the earth is dried and parched; food and water are scarce. It is, in every way, a season of death. Then, however, the rain arrives, harsh and relentless, but life giving nonetheless. The rain is the amniotic fluid catalyzing the re-entrance of life unto the barren earth. This annual cycle of death and rebirth presents the native people with a dire ultimatum: they must either obey nature or not survive. If they try to go against nature’s course, they will inevitably fail. Nature controls life. Observing this phenomenon, Buddhists learned from nature and realized that this cycle can be found everywhere. They realized that humans undergo an equivalent cycle called samsara, or reincarnation. - â€Å"He could no longer distinguish the many voices, the cheerful from the weeping, the children’s from the men’s: they all belonged together. The lament of the knower’s yearning and laughing, the screaming of the angry, the moaning of the dying- everything was one; everything was entwined and entwisted, was interwoven a thousand fold. And all of it together, all voices, all goals, all yearnings, all sufferings, all pleasures, all good and evil-the world was everything together. Everything together was the river of events, was the music of life. And when Siddhartha listened attentively to this river, listened to this song of a thousand voices, when he did not listen to sorrow or laughter, when he did not bring his soul to any one voice and did not enter them with his ego, but listened to all of them, heard the wholeness, the oneness- then the great song of the thousand voices consisted of a single word, which was ‘om’: perfection†¦belonging to the oneness† (Hesse 118-119). At the core of Buddhism lies an important lesson about maya and Enlightenment. To reach Enlightenment, one must understand all. One of the first steps towards such understanding is to understand maya, or illusion. Everything that one sees, feels, and tastes belongs to the world of maya. Even one does not exist but in the world of maya. Thus, if all does not exist, then all is equal. One is equal to everything in the surrounding world, especially nature. All are one in Atman, which is the heart of all of Buddhism. Everything is one. All of this separation from nature and from one another is simply maya, or an illusion. Consequently, in Buddhism, any injustice done to nature is an injustice to oneself. To reach Enlightenment, peace and oneness with nature are essential. Man and nature are one. Therefore, everyone and everything, especially nature, should be treated as so. â€Å"[Siddhartha said,] ‘This stone is a stone, it is also an animal, it is also God, it is also the Buddha, I love and honor it not because it would become this or that someday, but because of this because it is a stone, because it appears to me now and today as a stone, it is precisely because of this that I love it and see worth and meaning in each of its veins and pits, in the yellow, in the gray, in the hardness, in the sound it emits when I tap it,  in the dryness or dampness of its surface. [T]hat is precisely what I like and what seems wonderful to me and worthy of worship†¦I love the stone and the river and all these things that we contemplate and also a tree or a piece of bark. These are things and things can be loved† (Hesse 126-127). In harmony with the principle of reincarnation, any plant, creature, or other aspect of nature is a part of the cycle of rebirth. Therefore, any of these can one day become a man, for when something in nature dies, it undergoes the cycle of rebirth and can be reborn as anything. One day, it will become a human. Nature holds the ability within itself to be a human and, for that reason, should be considered as an equal. The true magnitude of nature’s presence in Buddhism is truly portrayed by the distinct mentioning of Siddhartha reaching enlightenment under a tree, specifically the Bodhi tree or the Asiatic fig tree (Gach 16). The scriptural account of the Enlightenment of Buddha gives this significance to nature when Buddha sits under the Bodhi tree for seven whole days. After the seven days, the Buddha gets up only to sit down again at an Ajapala banyan-tree for another length of time. He rises once again just to sit down once more at the foot of a Mucalinda tree (â€Å"Bodhi Leaf†). Nature is therefore made clear as one of the most important aspects of Buddhism. As Buddhists have such a deep reverence for nature, they believe in keeping peace with every aspect of nature. This does not just mean plants but also animals and other living creatures. However, that does not mean that all Buddhists must be vegetarians although it is strongly suggested to do so. It is said that the act of eating meat is a form of karma that will lead a person farther from Enlightenment. Therefore, the more meat one eats in one’s various lives, the more times one will have to experience the cycle of death and rebirth. On the other hand, some Buddhists believe in another view of meat eating. One is allowed to eat meat that one receives unless one knows or suspects that the meat in question was killed especially for one (Epstein). As far as sacrificial practices, meat is not sacrificed but instead herbs and incense are given up in prayer. Peace is a very important aspect of treating nature. Peace comes in many forms: peace towards environment, towards creatures, towards man, etc. A Buddhist definition of peace is â€Å"softening what is rigid in our hearts† (Chodron 17). In keeping with their attitude towards nature, Buddhists also believe that a man should not kill another man for any reason. In Buddhism, war is never the answer. In fact, the first few lines of the Dhammapada, a Buddhist scripture, state â€Å"For love is not conquered by hate: hate is conquered by love. This is a law eternal† (Chappell 81). Therefore, instead of fighting hate with hate, Buddhists believe in fighting hate with love. That is the only way to overcome and to reach Enlightenment. â€Å"’When someone seeks,’ said Siddhartha,’ then it easily happens that his eyes see only the thing that he seeks, and he is able to find nothing, to take in nothing because he always thinks only about the thing he is seeking, because he has one goal, because he is obsessed with his goal. Seeking means: having a goal. But finding means: being free, being open, having no goal. You, Venerable One, may truly be a seeker, for, in striving toward your goal, you fail to see certain things that are right under your nose. † (Hesse, 121-122) As previously stated, to reach Enlightenment, Buddhists believe all that is needed is understanding. The ultimate goal of Buddhists is to attain this understanding, this meaning, this Enlightenment. However, one must be aware that spending a life seeking is not the way to reach Enlightenment. To be a faithful Buddhist, one must understand that the key is not to seek. For, in seeking, as this quote says, the obvious is not seen. Buddhism then teaches that to reach Enlightenment, one must find not seek. Therefore, Buddhists do not seek to explain nature (Hanh 78). They are content with nature as it is- unexplained, for nature’s explanations can be found without seeking. â€Å"’Is this what you mean: that the river is everywhere at once, at its source and at its mouth, at the waterfall, at the ferry, at the rapids, in the sea ,in the mountains, everywhere at once, and only the present exists for it, and not the shadow of the future? ’ ‘That is it,’ said Siddhartha. ‘And when I learned that, I looked at my life, and it was also a river and the boy Siddhartha was separated from the adult Siddhartha and from the old man Siddhartha only by shadow, not by substance. Nor were Siddhartha’s earlier births the past, and his death and his return to [Atman] are no future. Nothing was, nothing will be; everything is, everything has being and is present† (Hesse 94). A final important aspect of Buddhism is the concept that time does not exist. Time is a man-made notion that does nothing but bring about worries. All sufferings in life can be attributed to time. Buddhists believe that once the concept of time is released, life will hold no more problems, worries, or stresses. Only then can Enlightenment be truly reached. When the concept of time is destroyed inside oneself, it allows for a completely new philosophy to surface. Greece is a country lined with hostile, jagged mountains, in which there are very few arable location surrounded by threatening seas. There is no cycle, no preconception, no structure. To the Ancient Greeks, it seemed that nature was not kind; nature was no friend to them. Therefore, their logic decided that they should be no friend to nature. Such was the physical and mental location of this people, and the beginning of many differences between Greek thought and Buddhism. Greeks living about six hundred years ere the birth of Christ were very religious, as well as very diverse spiritually. All the answers to their questions were found in different religions. Ancient Greeks passed down their religious traditions orally through myths. A myth is â€Å"a story about the gods which sets out to explain why life is as it is† (Gaarder, 22). Greek mythology was an integral part of Greek culture. The ‘miracle of Greece’ is a phrase that describes the awakening of Greek culture and its effects on the rest of the world. One way the Greeks accomplished this was through their focus on man’s importance. They put mankind at the center of their world so that man was all-important. The Greeks even created the gods in their own image, complete with very human qualities. This was the first time in history that a god was made into a recognizable, tangible form. Erstwhile, gods had no lucidity about them. â€Å"Greek artists and poets realized how splendid a man could be, straight and swift and strong. He was the fulfillment of their search for beauty. They had no wish to create some fantasy shaped in their own minds† (Hamilton, 9). Man was put on a pedestal and made the most prominent being in the world, so that he was made into a deity. Any human could be the son of a god, thereby half-divine, an idea unheard of before this time. This idea of man being the ultimate authority is in complete contradiction to Buddhism, where man was equal to nature, not above it. â€Å"And soon as the men had prayed and flung the barley, first they lifted back the heads of the victims, slit their throats, skinned them and carved away the meat from the thighbones and wrapped them in fat, a double fold sliced clean and topped with strips of flesh. And the old man burned these over dried split wood and over the quarters poured out glistening wine while young men at his side held five-pronged forks. Once they had burned the bones and tasted the organs they cut the rest into pieces, pierced them with spits, roasted them to a turn and pulled them off the fire† (Homer 93) Myths were also used for other purposes than learning. â€Å"But a myth was not only an explanation. People also carried out religious ceremonies related to the myths† (Gaarder, 25). Like most other religions at the time, the Ancient Greeks’ religions consisted of brutal rituals and rites that contrasted greatly to the thoughts of Buddhism (Connolly 87). Buddhism teaches of kindness to animals whereas Greek religion utilized animal cruelty as part of their holy worship to the gods. The gods of Olympus, who were created in the ultimate image of the Greek people, used the forms of innocent animals to manipulate and get what they wanted. In many instances, Zeus used the guise of animals when he wanted to capture a woman and gain her trust. â€Å"[T]hat very instant [Zeus] fell madly in love with Europa [ H]e thought it well to be cautious, and before appearing to Europa he changed himself into a bull† (Hamilton 101). However, rather than setting an example to revere animals, this teaches people to use animals in any way possible to reach the desired end. Even more opposed to Buddhism was the fact that a Greek hero was someone who had extreme strength or other physical features that he could use against animals. Hercules is one of the best examples of this notion. He is considered the greatest Greek hero ever to live. Through a tragic sequence of events, he killed his sons and wife, but was doomed to live on in order to undergo a series of trials to redeem himself. His first predicament was to â€Å"kill the lion of Nemea. Hercules solved [that] by choking the life out of [the lion]† (Hamilton 231). Hercules also had to drive out the â€Å"Stymphalian birds, which were a plague to the people of Stymphalus because of their enormous numbers† (Hamilton 232). This shows that, unlike Buddhists, Greeks could not live in peace with nature, but instead hated nature. Ancient Greeks did not want anything to do with nature, let alone be a part of it. Hercules also had to capture many animals in these trials such as the â€Å"stag with horns of gold†, â€Å"a great boar which had its lair on Mount Erymanthus†, â€Å"the savage bull that Poseidon had given Minos†, â€Å"the man-eating mares of King Diomedes of Thrace†, the cattle of Geryon†, and â€Å"Cerberus the three-headed dog† (Hamilton 232-233). Hercules inspired the Greeks not by staying in peace with nature but instead by forcing it to conform to his will in a harsh, cruel way. Hercules made sure he was above nature, a predicament the Buddhists avoided and even condemned. In summary, Greeks wanted to overcome nature whereas Buddhists wanted to be one with nature. â€Å"So by the beaked ships the Argives formed for battle, arming round you, Achilles –Achilles starved for war-and faced the Trojan ranks along the plain’s high ground[†¦T]he Achaeans kept on gaining glory- great Achilles who held back from the brutal fighting so long had just come blazing forth. Chilling tremors shook the Trojans’ knees, down to the last man, terrified at the sight: the headlong runner coming, gleaming in all his gear, afire like man-destroying Ares† (Homer 503, 505). As previously stated, Buddhists lived by the doctrine to fight hate with love. If Ancient Greeks had a concise doctrine about war, it would have been to fight hate with more hate. Ancient Greek civilization centralized around their love of carnage. The majority of Ancient Greek myths revolved around war or other forms of fighting. The Iliad is a 537-page myth about one war and it glorifies all aspects of war. The heroes of The Iliad are not monks or The Buddha like in Buddhism. Instead, the heroes of The Iliad are Achilles and Hector, two soldiers magnificent in warfare and bloodthirsty through and through. In addition, Achilles is most illustrious in The Iliad when he is the most sanguinary. â€Å"[Diomedes] went whirling into the slaughter now, hacking left and right and hideous groans broke from the drying Thracians slashed by the sword-the ground ran red with blood. [†¦]Tydeus’ son went tearing into that Thracian camp until he’d butchered twelve. [†¦]But now the son of Tydeus came upon the king, the thirteenth man, and ripped away his life. [†¦]Patroclus tore [Pronous’s] chest left bare by the shield-rim, loosed his knees and the man went crashing down. [†¦ Then Patroclus] stabbed [Thestor’s] right jawbone, ramming the spearhead square between his teeth so hard he hooked him by that spearhead over the chariot-rail, hoisted, dragged the Trojan out. [†¦Patroclus then] gaffed him off his car [†¦] and flipped him down face first, dead as he fell. Next [†¦] he flung a rock and it struck between [Erylaus’s] eyes and the man’s whole skull split in his heavy helmet. [Patroclus] crowded corpse on corpse on the earth. † (Homer, 292, 426-427) Even more horrific to the eyes of Buddhists would be the battle scenes in The Iliad that truly show the awe and glory the ancient Greeks saw in war. The Iliad was a myth that served more as entertainment than anything else. This shows that Ancient Greeks were amused by this kind of literature. Buddhists believe in not seeking to explain nature. By contrast, Ancient Greeks did precisely this with their myths. â€Å"[A myth] is an explanation of something in nature; how, for instance, any and everything in the universe came into existence: men, animals, this of that tree or flower, the sun, the moon, the stars, storms, eruptions, earthquakes, all that is and all that happens† (Hamilton 12). Ancient Greeks wanted to know how everything happened around them so they could manipulate their environment more easily. This is a central division between Ancient Greeks and Buddhism. Whereas Buddhists believe that time does not exist, Ancient Greeks were engrossed by time. All throughout The Iliad, Homer stresses how long the war has been going on and how it worries and distresses everyone involved. Unlike Buddhists, the Greeks do not disown the belief of time. They stay true to the traditional man-made vision of time instead of throwing out their problems by abandoning the idea of time. â€Å"[The natural philosopher] Heraclitus (c. 540-480 B. C. )[†¦] was from Ephesus in Asia Minor. He thought that constant change, or glow, was in fact the most basic characteristic of nature. [†¦ ]‘Everything flows,’ said Heraclitus. Everything is in constant flux and movement, nothing is abiding. Therefore we ‘cannot step twice into the same river. When I step into the river for the second time, neither I nor the river are the same’† (Gaarder 34). Slowly, Greek culture started to move away from religion and more towards philosophy. It evolved from a â€Å"mythological mode of thought to one based on experience and reason† (Gaarder 27). People could make ideas for themselves and create new beliefs instead of going back to the myths. The world started a shift from relying on religion to analyzing the world with science and philosophy. Surprisingly, this is where similarities between Greek and Buddhist culture were born. At first, the two religions of the ancient Greeks and the Buddhists clashed greatly. However, through the move away from mythical religion the Greek beliefs were brought closer towards the religion of Buddhism. Heraclitus here used the same metaphor for his philosophy as Siddhartha used for his. Although the passages were said in different situations and with different words, both quotes have the same general philosophy that time does not truly exist. A river is usually a sign of separation; a river acts as a divider in most cases. However, this river brings two very different cultures together in a very powerful way that is clear to all. Nature is everything outside and inside a man or a woman or a child. Nature is every breath taken, every step forward, every glance made, every wind blown, and every flower planted. The two cultures of Greece and Buddhism showed great contrasts in the beginning but one resounding similarity was found in something as simple as a river. India shows a cyclic weather that inspired the thought of rebirth while Greece shows a harsh terrain that inspired animosity between man and nature. As a consequence, Buddhists thought that nature and man are one while Greeks were taught to be above nature and manipulate it in any way possible. Buddhists lived in ultimate peace while the ancient Greeks lived in love of carnage. The Buddhist outlook on nature is derived from the belief that man is one with nature whereas the original Greek outlook is derived from the thought that man is above nature. Nature is the essence of the world, the aura of everything around people. These two cultures, although vastly different, impacted human belief and intellect forever.

Overview Of Vowels And Consonants

Overview Of Vowels And Consonants Language is an organization of sounds, of vocal symbols-the sounds produced from the mouth with the help of various organs of speech to convey some meaningful message. Language has a very important social purpose, because it is mainly used for linguistic communication. It is the most powerful, convenient and permanent means and form of communication. A language can be used in two ways for the purposes of communication. It can be spoken or written but the medium of speech is more important than writing. This is because speech comes first in the history of any language community in fact, it came centuries before writing in the history of any language community. Secondly, speech comes first in the history of any individual. We started speaking long before we started writing. Speech as a medium of communication is used much more than the medium of writing. I n every language, a letter of the alphabet represents a particular sound. Lastly, modern technology has contributed tremendously t o the importance of speech- modern inventions like the telephone, the radio, the tape recorder and several such devices have raised problems of communication primarily concerned with speech. Linguistics is a systematic study of language. Phonetics is a branch of linguistics and it is the branch dealing with the medium of speech. It deals with the production, transmission and reception of the sounds of human speech. For the production of speech sounds, we need an air-stream mechanism. There are three main air-stream mechanisms, such as, pulmonic, glottalic and velaric air-stream mechanisms. When the air-stream mechanism is used to push out, it is called egressive and when it is used to draw air in, it is called ingressive. Most sounds of most languages in the world are produced with a pulmonic egressive air-stream mechanism. The author described in detail the various organs that are responsible for converting the lung-air into speech sounds before it escapes into the outer atmosphere. For instance, if we say a prolonged ssss, a prolonged zzzz, a prolonged ffff and a prolonged vvvv, we see at once two things. We recognize these as speech sounds because these sounds occur i n the various words we use in our English speech. The other thing we notice is that each one of these sounds is different from the others. Speech sounds are very broadly divided into two categories, namely, Vowels and Consonants. If we say the English word shoe, we realize that this word is made up of two sounds, one represented by the letters sh and the other represented by the letters oe. When we produce the sound represented by the letters sh slowly, we realize that during the production of this sound, the air escapes through the mouth with friction. On the other hand, when we produce the sound represented by the letters oe, the air escapes through the mouth freely and we do not hear any friction. The sound is represented by the letters sh in the word shoe is a consonant and the sound represented by the letters oe in the word shoe is a vowel. All sounds during the production of which we hear friction are consonants, but not all consonants are produced with friction. If we say the words, she, shoe, shy, show, ship and shout, we will realize that when we produce the sounds represented by the letters e, oe, y, ow, i and ou in these words, the air escapes through the mouth freely without any friction. All these sounds are therefore vowels but each one of them sounds different from the others. These sounds should therefore be sub-classified. Similarly, if we say the words shoe, see, zoo and who, we will hear friction during the production of the sounds represented by the letters sh, s, z and wh. All these sounds are therefore consonants. But once again, we will see that each of them sounds different from the others. The sounds that are called consonants also need to be sub-classified. Description of Consonants: The word consonant has been derived from the Greek word consonautem, which means the sound produced with the help of some other sound (vowel). A consonant is usually described, taking into account whether it is voiceless or voiced, its place of articulation and its manner of articulation. Manner of articulation refers to the stricture involved and plosive, affricate, nasal, fricative, etc; are labels given to consonants according to their manner of articulation. Place of articulation just means the two articulators involved in the production of a consonant. Consonants can be described according to their places of articulation. The label used is normally an adjective derived from the name of the passive articulator. The places of articulation that we frequently come across are bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar, retroflex, palatal, velar, uvular and glottal. The classification of sounds into vowels and consonants is customary irrespective of phonetic, phonological, or orthographic references. The current classification following Pike divides the sounds into vocoids (vowel sounds), contoids (consonant sounds) and semi-vocoids or semi-contoids (for example; /w/ and /j/ in English). The terms contoids and vocoids refer to phonetic form only, without any reference to phonological function. A vocoid, according to Pike, is a segment formed with an open approximation of the articulators, with or without a velic closure, and with central passage or air-stream. All other segments are contoids. In English, there can be syllabic vocoids, non-syllabic vocoids, syllabic contoids and non-syllabic contoids. Syllabic vocoids are all vowel sounds; they function as syllable nuclei. Phonetically, the vocoids are vowels and their phonological function is that of a syllabic vocoid. Non-syllabic vocoids are the sounds which are phonetically vocoids but phonologically are contoids. Syllabic contoids are the sounds which are phonetically contoids but their phonological function is that of syllabic nucleus, that is, they represent the V element in the structure of a syllable. Non-syllabic contoids are the sounds that phonetically are contoids and phonologically represent the C element in the structure of a syllable. A description of consonantal sounds, according to A.C.Gimson, must provide answers to the following questions:- Is the air-stream set in motion by the lungs or by some other means (pulmonic or non-pulmonic)? Is the air-stream forced outwards or sucked inwards (egressive or ingressive)? Do the vocal cords vibrate or not (voiced or voiceless)? Is the soft palate raised or lowered? Or, does the air pass through the oral cavity (mouth) or the nasal cavity (nose)? At what point or points and between what organs does the closure or narrowing take place (Place of articulation)? What is the type of closure or narrowing at the point of articulation (Manner of articulation)? Thus, the description of a consonant will include five kinds of information: 1.) The nature of air-stream mechanism, 2.) The state of the glottis, 3.) The position of the soft palate, 4.) The articulators involved- the active articulator and the passive articulator and 5.) The nature of stricture involved regarding its production. The Nature of Air-Stream Mechanism: All English sounds, vowels as well as consonants, are produced with a Pulmonic egressive air-stream mechanism, that is, the lung-air pushed out. The State of the Glottis: Speech sounds can be classified as voiceless or voiced, depending upon whether the vocal cords are wide apart and the glottis is wide open (voiceless) or the vocal cords are kept loosely together and they vibrate (voiced). The Position of the Soft Palate: Speech sounds can be classified as oral or nasal, depending upon whether the soft-palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air (oral) or it is lowered to open the nasal passage of air simultaneously with an oral closure (nasal). Sounds can also be nasalised. The Articulators Involved-the Active and Passive Articulators: Of the various articulators described in the chapter, at least two are required for the production of any speech sound; some articulators move during the production of speech sounds. These are termed as active articulators. Certain other articulators remain passive and the active articulators move in the direction of these. These are termed as passive articulators. The Nature of Stricture Involved: The term stricture refers to the way in which the passage of air is restricted by the various organs of speech. The stricture may be one of complete closure, that is, the active and passive articulators come into firm contact with each other, thus preventing the lung-air from escaping through the mouth. Simultaneously, there is a velic closure, that is, the soft palate is raised, thereby shutting off the nasal passage of air. Thus, the lung-air is blocked in the mouth. When the oral closure is released, that is, when the active articulator is suddenly removed from the passive articulator, the air escapes with a small explosive noise. Sounds produced with a stricture of complete closure and sudden release are called plosives. If the active articulator is removed slowly from the passive articulator, instead of the explosive noise that is characteristic of plosive consonants, friction will be heard. Description of Vowels: Vowels may be defined with an open approximation without any obstruction, partial or complete, in the air passage. They are referred to as vocoids in phonetics. They can be described in terms of three variables: Height of tongue. Part of the tongue which is raised or lowered. Lip-rounding. So vocoids are normally classified according to these three criteria: tongue-height (high, mid, low, or close, half-close, half-open and open), tongue-advancement (front, central, back) and lip-rounding (rounded and unrounded). In order to describe the vowels, we usually draw three points in the horizontal axes: front, central and back, referring to the part of the tongue which is the highest. So, we have : Front vowels, during the production of which the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. For example; / i, i: , e: , a / in Hindi, and / i, i: , e , à ¦ / in English as in sit, seat, set, and sat respectively. Back vowels, during the production of which the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. For example; / o: , u , u: ,/ in Hindi, and / a: , Ɇ , ɆÃƒâ€¹Ã‚  , u , u: / in English as in cart, cot, caught, book and tool respectively. Central vowels, during the production of which the central part of the tongue ( the part between the front and the back) is raised. For example; / Éâ„ ¢ / in Hindi, and / Éâ„ ¢ , Éâ„ ¢: , ÊŒ / in English as in about, earth and but respectively. O n the vertical axis, we usually draw four points: close, half-close, half-open, and open. They are also referred to as high, high mid, mid (middle), low mid, and low by some phoneticians, especially the American phoneticians. On the basis of the vertical axes, we have the following types of vowels. A close vowel is one for which the tongue is as close to the roof of mouth as possible. For example; / i: / in sea and / u: / in zoo. An open vowel is one which is produced with the tongue as low as possible and the jaws are wide open. For example, / a: / in card and / Ɇ / in hot. We can describe a vowel by using a three term label, indicating the height, the direction (advancement) of the tongue, and the position of the lips. For example; / a: / in the English word, arm, back, open, unrounded vowel. / Ɇ / in the English word, hot, back, open, rounded vowel. / i: / in the English word, need, front, close, unrounded vowel. / u / in the English word, tooth, back, close, rounded vowel. To describe the vowel sound, we mention whether it is open or close, half-close or half-open, front or back or central, long or short, whether the tongue is tense or lax while the vowel is being pronounced, and whether lips are spread, neutral, open rounded, or close rounded. All English vowels are voiced. So, for every vowel, we must state that it is voiced. Hence, to sum up, the main point of a language is to convey information. Nowadays, language can take various forms. It can be spoken or written. Peter Ladefoged also talked in his book that speech is the common way of using language. Another aspect of speech that is not part of language is the way speech conveys information about the speakers attitude to life, the subject under discussion and the person spoken to. The final kind of non-linguistic information conveyed by speech is the identity of the speaker. You can often tell the identity of the person who is speaking without looking at them. But then again, we may be wrong. Whenever we speak, we create a disturbance in the air around us, a sound wave, which is a small but rapid variation in air pressure spreading through the air. Speech sounds such as vowels can differ in pitch, loudness and quality. We can say the vowel a as in father on any pitch within the range of our voice. We can also say it softly or loudly without altering the pitch. And we can say as many different vowels as we can, without altering either the pitch or the loudness. The pitch of the sound depends on the rate of repetition of the changes in air pressure. The loudness of the sound depends on the size of the variations in air pressure. The third way in which sounds can differ is in quality, sometimes called timbre. The vowel in see differs in quality from the first vowel in father., irrespective of whether it also differs in pitch or loudness. Thus, Peter Ladefoged in his book has discussed the principal constraints on the evolution of the sounds of the worlds languages, which are ease of articulation, auditory distinctiveness, and gestural economy. He also discussed the differences between speech and language, and has also outlined some of the main acoustic distinctions among sounds; and how one of the acoustic distinctions, that corresponding to pitch, is used in the worlds languages.

Sex Trafficking And Prostitution Criminology Essay

Sex Trafficking And Prostitution Criminology Essay Trafficking n its dictionary meaning, the concept of trafficking denotes a trade in something that should not be traded in. The concept of trafficking in people refers to the criminal practice of exploitation of human beings whereby humans are treated as commodities for profit, subjected to various forms of exploitation. Sex trafficking is a type of human trafficking The definition contains three main elements that constitute trafficking:  [1]   1.Acts- recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a person. 2.Means Threat/use of force ,other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception or abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability. 3. Purpose- Prostitution, forced labour or services, slavery , slavery like practices: servitude, organ trade. Trafficking involves the following: Movement of a person, with deception or coercion and into a situation of forced labour, prostitution slavery like practices: servitude. Trafficking can occur with or without crossing any international border. Prostitution is the sale of sexual services for money. prostitution the word itself speaks about the plight of the women. it is not a problem which exists in India but exists throughout the world. The Prostitution continued from ancient and medieval India and has taken a more gigantic outlook in modern India. India is one of the biggest market for prostitution in Asia with Mumbai alone Accommodating 200,000 prostitutes. The 1990s also witnessed a significant shift in the perception of flesh trade, by differentiating prostitution from trafficking, seeing it not merely as a moral or law enforcement problem, but as a human rights(including legal and democratic rights).violation linked to gender discriminate and disparity in development. Difference between trafficking and prostitution- often, trafficking is confused with prostitution. These are not synonymous. Trafficking is the process/ means while prostitution can be the result/end (of being trafficked). Trafficking is therefore the overall process while prostitution is the result. Human trafficking is the acquisition of people by improper means such as force, fraud or deception, with the aim of exploiting them.  [2]  Human trafficking has a history coterminous with that of society and has existed in various forms in almost all civilisations and cultures. It is a trade that exploits the vulnerability of human beings, especially women and children, in complete violation of their human rights, and makes them objects of financial transactions through the use of force and duress, whether for the purpose of sex, labour, slavery, or servitude. The concept of trafficking denotes a trade in something that should not be traded in. Human trafficking as defined by the UN is, the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or service, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.  [3]   Human trafficking includes sexual exploitation, labour trafficking, etc. Nowadays even cross-border human trafficking is prevalent. India has a huge population and because of that and our dwindling economy many people live below the poverty line. The smugglers and traffickers promise them a better life- a ray of hope, jobs as domestic servants, in the film world or in factories. They can offer them money, pleasure trip invitations or false promises of marriage. The main targets are the poor, helpless people are the ones who are exploited the most. Social and religious practices too have been a big cause. The recruiters are the first in the chain -procurer- they may be parents, neighbours, relatives or lovers or people who have been trafficked before. The procurers move to the potential sites for victims which mostly are the poverty-stricken areas where there has been no proper rehabilitation and then they haunt the bus stops, railway stations, streets, etc. The period they choose for trafficking depends on if that place has suffered a drought or social or political disasters recently, so that it would be easier to lure in the already suffering victims. The procurers use drugs, abduction, kidnapping, persuasion or deception to bag the targets. They hand the victims to the brothel owners, escort services, or managers of a sex establishment. Sex Trafficking: The Concept Women and children from developing countries, and from vulnerable parts of society in developed countries, are lured by promises of decent employment into leaving their homes and travelling to what they consider will be a better life. Victims are often provided with false travel documents and an organized network is used to transport them to the destination country, where they find themselves forced into sexual slavery and held in inhumane conditions and constant fear. In India, public debate on the issue of trafficking of women and children for commercial sexual exploitation emerged in the 1990s.  [4]  Trafficking of Human being is one of the gravest and worst forms of violation of the basic human rights. Besides the physical trauma mental injuries that the victim suffers in the process are often unbearable. Victims lead a life of complete despair with no hope to emerge out of their pathetic conditions and in this state of neglect lead their lives in completely inhumane conditions. The traffickers deprive the victims of their most basic human rights. Victims of sexual abuse are subjected to physical violence and sexual abuse, and are held under duress against their will. They receive low or no wages. Hence, they have little or no savings. This combined with indebtedness to the trafficker keeps them in a situation of debt bondage and slavery. What gives impetus and fuels this business of flesh trade is a situation where a victim of sex traffick ing is sold against her wishes to a brothel by her procurer and the money that the procurer gets in return for her is a debt which the victim is compelled to pay in order to earn her freedom. What adds on to this problem is that a victim is often uneducated and unaware of the debt on her and continues to work for years to come in the flesh market under the belief that one day she would earn her freedom by repaying this entire amount. The victims are forced to work in extremely harsh and inhumane conditions, in extremely long working hours with little or no time for rest and also in a state of total physical confinement and bondage similar to imprisonment and have little or no control over their own movement. They are subjected to poor living conditions with abysmal hygiene and sanitation facilities.  [5]  Their extremely pitiable state is intensified when a victim contracts various diseases, unwanted pregnancies, physical injuries etc. They are on a high risk of STD, AIDS, HIV, hepatitis, tuberculosis etc. Victims have no recourse to even the basic medical needs and facilities. Social stigma and ostracism is the other problem the victims of sex trafficking made to undergo. There is no acceptance for a victim in the society during her stay and even after it if someone tries and emerges out of the clutches of a trafficker. Victims of trafficking are not accepted even by their family members thereby leaving them with no hope to even to them emerge out of it as the prospects of social rehabilitation and acceptance into the society seem not quiet alluring to a victim. They are exposed to drugs and other addictions, and sometimes forcibly made addicts in order to ensure their continued dependence on the trafficker. Once the victim falls into a traffickers clutches, she will be exploited without any hope of redresal as long as she is capable of earning. After she becomes old or ill, or is infected with HIV/AIDS, the trafficker abandons her. He no longer arranges for her bail or pays the fine for her pleading guilty, and she is left alone to face trial and the due process of Law. Trafficking is an offence and the trafficker is liable to punishment, irrespective of the consent of the trafficked person. Other than the fact of being trafficked, the traffickers deprive the victims of their most basic human rights in the following manner  [6]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are subjected to physical violence and sexual abuse, and are held under duress against their will. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They receive low or no wages. Hence, they have little or no savings. This combined with indebtedness to the trafficker keeps them in a situation of debt bondage and slavery.  [7]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are forced to work extremely long hours in inhuman working conditions leaving little time for rest. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They live in conditions of physical confinement similar to imprisonment and have little or no control over their own movement. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are subjected to poor living conditions with abysmal hygiene and sanitation facilities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The trafficker restricts their access to health or medical facilities. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face social stigma and social ostracism in their daily lives and as a result undergo constant humiliation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They are exposed to drugs and other addictions, and sometimes forcibly made addicts in order to ensure their continued dependence on the trafficker. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face a continuous assault on their physical, psychological, and emotional health. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They face health risks such as physical injury, STD, HIV/AIDS, unwanted pregnancies, repeated abortions, gynaecological diseases, tuberculosis, and other disease. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ They also face harassment from the police and prosecution, and convicted by the judicial system under the ITPA. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ When they are no longer in a position to earn, they are abandoned and even the families who lived off their earnings do not support them à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Children of women in prostitution, especially daughters, are prone to being trafficked themselves. They have no access to education and basic needs of life 1.1 Reasons for Trafficking Trafficking occurs not only for prostitution/commercial sexual exploitation. Women and children are trafficked for several other purposes, some of include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced labour, including bonded child labour, in the carpet, garment, and other industries/factories/worksites.  [8]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced or bonded domestic work may be bought and sold or forced to work in inhuman and violent conditions that include sexual abuse.  [9]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced labour in construction sites with little or no wages.  [10]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Forced employment in the entertainment industry, including bars, massage parlours, and similar establishments. In addition to poor or no pay and bad living conditions, sexual harassment is common. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Children are sometimes trafficked for begging. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Organ trade such as sale of kidneys.  [11]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fraudulent or forced marriage: this includes sham, fraudulent, and illegal marriages, entered into by the man, residing in India or abroad, with the criminal intention of sexually exploiting the woman. Mail order brides where women are purchased or lured with false promises of a marriage abroad and subsequently recruited into prostitution is also a form of trafficking. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Camel jockeying often involves the sale of young children who are tied on a camels back for racing. Children are often badly hurt or killed in such races. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Purchase and sale of babies for adoption, both within the country and abroad, against established laws and procedures for adoption. 1.2 Causes There are several factors that lead to trafficking of women and children or cause them to become victims of trafficking. These factors can be broadly classified into two categories: supply factors and demand factors Supply Factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Abject poverty sometimes forces parents to sell their children to traffickers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Harmful cultural practices often make women and children extremely vulnerable. Child marriage is sometimes the route for a child to be trafficked for sexual purposes. The stigma attached to single, widowed, and abandoned women, or second wives through bigamous marriages, causes such women to be abandoned by society. They become easy targets for traffickers. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Female illiteracy and lack of access to education by girls. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Male unemployment and loss of family income puts pressure on women to earn and support the family. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Natural calamities and poor rehabilitation of disaster victims puts pressure on women to earn and support the family. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Dysfunctional families or families that have difficulty functioning and communicating in emotionally healthy ways; a family that has a negative environment, which contributes little to the personal development and growth of family members.  [12]   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Desertion by one or the other parent, uncared for or abandoned children. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Traditional practices give social legitimacy to trafficking. These include the Devadasi and Jogin traditions where Devadasis are often trafficked and sexually exploited. This is equally applicable to other communities such as the Nats, Kanjars, and Bedias where traditionally girls are made to earn through prostitution. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Porous borders. Weak law enforcement and inefficient and corrupt policing of the borders ensure that women from neighbouring countries are brought into India and forced into prostitution in different towns. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Clandestine nature of the crime and weak law enforcement. The crime does not come to light very often because of its clandestine nature. Victims are unable to access justice and even when they attempt to do so, weak law enforcement enables the traffickers to escape. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Urban opportunities. Many women are either lured by false promises of jobs in urban areas or they voluntarily migrate to urban areas on hearing about the opportunities in cities from their neighbours and friends. When a woman is pushed into prostitution due to these causes, the issue of consent of the trafficked person is not relevant. Even if a woman knows that she is being trafficked and gives her full consent, it does not absolve the trafficker of guilt. Trafficking is an offence irrespective of the womans consent (Sections 5 and 6 of the Immoral Traffic(Prevention) Act, 1956). Demand Factors à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rising male migration to urban areas and demand for commercial sex. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Growth of tourism, which sometimes indirectly encourages sex tourism. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Scare of HIV/AIDS and prevalent myths on sexuality and STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) leads to greater demand for newer and younger girls. The number of trafficked girls thus increases and their age decreases. 1.3 Concerns on Trafficking in India In the constitution of India Trafficking is prohibited.  [13]  Yet India is the Destination, source and transit for human trafficking primarily for commercial sexual exploitation, forced labour and with the falling sex ratio trafficking for marriages has become another factor for trafficking women and young girls. Trafficking of persons across the borders of Punjab and Bangladesh is not a cumbersome process, also Indias Policy of an open border with Nepal has made it difficult to identify trafficking.  [14]   There are a number of factors which are responsible for influencing trafficking of women and young girls in India. Women and young girls may be trafficked in India due to cultural practices and also because of poverty. Cultural Practices include the Devdasi System which is still prevalent in some parts of India as shown in a 2004 report by the National Human Rights Commission of the Government of India.  [15]  There are again many women who willingly migrate to the middle East, Europe and the United States to work as domestic labor who are defrauded by the placement agencies and sometimes trafficked. Women and Children trafficked within India are kept in conditions of involuntary servitude with characteristics such as withholding payment of wages, confiscation of travel documents non- adherence to conditions of work, inordinate profits to middle man. India is also a destination country for persons from Bangladesh and Nepal, and a bulk of those trafficked from these countries are women and children. In both cases the initial migration legal, illegal may be voluntary and subsequently migrants may be trafficked for sexual exploitation or any other factor. The numbers are very large, though precise figures are lacking and need to be tackled urgently. The 2010 Trafficking in persons Report  [16]  also points out that ninety percent of the trafficked persons belong to the most disadvantaged groups. It also carried evidence of NGO reports on duping of girls from north east India with Promises of jobs and then forcing them into prostitution as well as forced marriages. This heinous crime needs to be addressed urgently. There are legislations which deal with criminalizing a number of offences which are not specifically dealt with in the ITPA. These include penalizing acts such as procuring, buying and selling of human beings importing or exporting human beings, buying and selling minors, coercing or forcing marriage of minors, kidnapping and abducting and using force for the purpose of trafficking, slavery and slavery like conditions and unacceptable form of labor. A chart detailing miscellaneous legislations relevant to trafficking is given below.  [17]   LEGISLATIONS SECTION DETAILS OF THE PROVISION Indian Penal Code,1860 366 Kidnapping ,abducting or inducing a women to compel marriage. 366A Procuring a minor girl 366B Importation of a girl below 21 for sexual exploitation. 367 Kidnapping/abducting to subject person to grievous hurt, slavery. 370 Buying or disposing of a person as slave. 371 Habitual dealing in slaves. 372 Selling minor for prostitution 373 Buying minor for prostitution 374 Compelling a person to labour. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act,2006 12 Child marriage void if after that the minor is sold or trafficked or used for immoral purposes. Children (Pledging of Labour) Act,1933 4-6 Penalties for pledging labour of children(under 15 years) Bonded Labour System(Abolition )Act,1976 16 Compelling a person to render bonded labour or forced labour. Juvenile Justice Act,2000 2(vii) A child in need of care and protection includes one who is vulnerable and likely to be trafficked. 26 Procuring juveniles for hazardous employment. Trafficking and organised crime as defined by the law in India.- for the purpose of understanding cross border trafficking, especially in the context of organised crime, there are two definitions that need to be analysed, wiz, trafficking and organised crimes. How India defines and engages with these two terms is an indicator of the legal protection given to combat trafficking as an organised crime. Domestic Law of India There is no current central legislation in India with regard to organized crime. Some States however have legislated on the same. Maharashtra, which was the first State to have an Act,  [18]  defines organized crime as any continuing unlawful activity by an individual, singly or jointly, either as a member of an organized crime syndicate or on behalf of such syndicate, by use of violence or threat of violence or intimidation or coercion or other unlawful means, with the objective of gaining pecuniary benefits, or gaining undue economic or other advantage for himself or any other person, or promoting insurgency.  [19]   In the absence of a specific law on organized crime, reliance is placed on general provisions in criminal law dealing with common intention to commit an offence  [20]  , criminal conspiracy  [21]  and abetment. Anti-corruption laws may also be used. India has addressed trafficking both directly and indirectly in its Constitution. There are three Articles spread over Fundamental Rights in Part III and Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV which address trafficking related issues. The chart below summarizes the provisions. Provisions on Trafficking in the Constitution of India  [22]   Article 23 Fundamental Right prohibiting trafficking in human beings and forms of forced labor. Article 39(e) Directive Principle of State Policy directed at ensuring that health and strength of individuals are not abused and that no one is forced by economic necessity to do work unsuited to their age or strength.. Article 39(f) Directive Principle of State Policy stating that childhood and youth should be protected against exploitation. India has a written Constitution, and though the above provisions make Indias mandate on trafficking clear, penalizing and tackling trafficking is dealt with by legislation. The Constitution specifically mentions trafficking in human beings as well as forced labor and also indicates the special protection to be provided to vulnerable groups in society. The Constitution of India discusses provisions on trafficking at two levels one, at the level of Fundamental Rights which are basic rights available to all, irrespective of caste, creed, sex, place of birth, etc., and two, at the level of Directive Principles of State Policy. Fundamental Rights are justiciable and can be directly enforced in a court of law, whereas Directive Principles of State Policy are non-justiciable and cannot be directly enforced in a Court of Law. However, Directive Principles play a major role in shaping the policy of the State and may sometimes be the basis that legislation is built on. As a Fundamental Right in Article 23, trafficking in human beings is prohibited as are all forms of forced labor. According to Directive Principles of State Policy in Articles 39(e) and (f), the health and strength of workers should not be abused. It prohibits exploitation of persons to perform work which is unsuitable for them. It also specifically protects children and you th against exploitation of any kind. While the provisions in the Directive Principles of State Policy do not mention trafficking, it mentions exploitation which is a key element in trafficking. 1.4 International legislation History of international legislation International pressure to address trafficking in women and children became a growing part of the social Reform movement in the United States and Europe during the late 19th century. International legislation against the trafficking of women and children began with the ratification of an international convention in 1901, followed by ratification of a second convention in 1904. These conventions were ratified by 34 countries. The first formal international research into the scope of the problem was funded by American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, through the American Bureau of Social Hygiene  [23]  . In 1923, a committee from the bureau was tasked with investigating trafficking in 28 countries, interviewing approximately 5,000 informants and analyzing information over two years before issuing its final report. This was the first formal report on trafficking in women and children to be issued by an official body. The League of Nations, formed in 1919, took over as the international coordinator of legislation intended to end the trafficking of women and children. An international Conference on White Slave Traffic was held in 1921, attended by the 34 countries that ratified the 1901 and 1904 conventions. Another convention against trafficking was ratified by League members in 1922, and like the 1904 international convention, this one required ratifying countries to submit annual reports on their progress in tackling the problem. Compliance with this requirement was not complete, although it gradually improved: in 1924, approximately 34% of the member countries submitted reports as required, which rose to 46% in 1929, 52% in 1933, and 61% in 1934. 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children (sponsored by the League of Nations) Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (United Nations General Assembly resolution, came into force in 1951) Current international laws Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages, entered into force in 1964 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children; and Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air. ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138) ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182) CHAPTER-II :: LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND POLICIES 2.1 Definition of Trafficking Article 3 of the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2000, states: Trafficking in Persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer,harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery,servitude or the removal of organs.  [24]   Article 1 (3), SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, signed by India on January 5, 2002, states: Trafficking means the moving, selling or buying of women and children for prostitution within and outside a country for monetary or other considerations with or without the consent of the of the person subjected to trafficking  [25]  . Article 1 (4) of the SAARC Convention defines Traffickers as: Traffickers means persons, agencies or institutions engaged in any form of trafficking. Article 34 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) states: States Parties undertake to protect the Child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. For these purposes, States Parties shall in particular take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent: (a) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any lawful sexual activity; (b) The exploitative use of children in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices; (c) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performances and materials. Further, Article 35 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child states: States Parties shall take all appropriate national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent the abduction of, the sale of or traffic in children for any purpose or in any form. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA) does not specifically define trafficking. However, the ingredients of trafficking, such as sexual exploitation and abuse of persons; running of a brothel; living on the earnings of a prostitute; procuring, inducing or taking a person for the sake of prostitution; detaining a person for prostitution, etc., are contained in Sections 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 of the Act. In the ITPA, (amended in 1978 and 1986), even though trafficking is not yet defined in accordance with the UN Protocol, To Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime or as per the SAARC Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution, the essential ingr